Reading Challenges Encountered by Learners and Teacher-Implemented Interventions: A Structured Literature Review

Abstract

Reading proficiency remains a critical determinant of learners’ academic success and long-term educational attainment. However, persistent difficulties in early reading acquisition continue to be reported across diverse educational contexts. This study provides a structured literature review examining the reading challenges encountered by learners and the instructional interventions implemented to address these difficulties. A systematic search of peer-reviewed studies was conducted across ERIC, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, studies focusing on early and elementary-level learners were analyzed through thematic synthesis. The review identifies recurrent learner-level challenges, including deficits in phonological awareness, limited vocabulary development, decoding difficulties, and comprehension deficits. Contextual factors such as socio-economic disparities, multilingual environments, and limited instructional resources further compound these challenges. A systematic search of peer-reviewed studies was conducted across ERIC, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, studies focusing on early and elementary-level learners were analyzed through thematic synthesis. The review identifies recurrent learner-level challenges, including deficits in phonological awareness, limited vocabulary development, decoding difficulties, and comprehension deficits. Contextual factors such as socio-economic disparities, multilingual environments, and limited instructional resources further compound these challenges. Findings indicate that evidence-based interventions particularly explicit phonics instruction, structured literacy approaches, differentiated instruction, formative assessment practices, and family engagement initiatives demonstrate positive effects on reading development when implemented systematically and consistently. However, variability in implementation fidelity and contextual adaptation influences intervention effectiveness. This review contributes to the field by integrating learner-level and contextual determinants within a consolidated analytical framework, highlighting gaps in research in low-resource and linguistically diverse settings. The study offers implications for literacy policy, teacher professional development, and future empirical investigations aimed at improving reading outcomes globally.